Iron and Zinc Bioavailability from Plant-Based Meat Alternatives: A Narrative Review on Nutritional Implications and Challenges

Abstrak

The increasing popularity of plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) is driven by health, environmental, and sustainability concerns; however, the bioavailability of important micronutrients such as iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) remains a major nutritional challenge. Unlike animal-based foods, PBMAs contain Fe and Zn only in non-heme forms, which are less efficiently absorbed and strongly affected by dietary inhibitors including phytate, polyphenols, and fiber, potentially increasing the risk of anemia, impaired immunity, and growth disturbances. This review aimed to evaluate scientific evidence regarding the content, bioavailability, and enhancement strategies of Fe and Zn in PBMAs. Literature searches were conducted in PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar using keywords related to iron bioavailability, zinc bioavailability, plant-based meat, absorption inhibitors, and enhancers. Articles were selected based on relevance, methodological quality, and significance of findings. Evidence shows that PBMAs derived from soy, pea, and wheat gluten provide meaningful amounts of Fe and Zn, although their bioavailability is generally lower than that of meat products. Several approaches, including fermentation, soaking, sprouting, mineral fortification, and co-consumption with vitamin C, have been shown to significantly improve mineral absorption. Although long-term physiological adaptation among vegetarians and vegans may partially compensate for reduced absorption, Fe and Zn status still tends to be lower than in omnivorous populations. Overall, PBMAs can support sustainable dietary patterns, but nutritional strategies and product innovations are essential to optimize Fe and Zn bioavailability and reduce the risk of micronutrient deficiencies.